Water issues - US
there are water quantity and water quality issues
Water quantity
Water use in the US
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precipitation distribution in the US is very uneven
(Fig), demand and supply are
not matched very well
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1990 total water withdrawals in the US, qualitatively
(Fig)
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source, use and disposition of water in the US (Fig)(Fig)
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water use in the US will probably not drop significantly in the near future
Problems: Surface waters
Overuse, particularly in the west
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Colorado River
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7 states and 2 countries fighting over the water
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allocation was determined in a particular wet year
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CA is currently using more than its share
Dams
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accumulation of sediments
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changes in ecology of streams
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fisheries
recreation
Floods
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increasing damage through extreme climate events and increased settlement
of river banks
Climate change?
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the El Nino pattern (Fig) is a example
how small climate perturbations affect the water cycle (Fig)
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future climate change will have major impacts on water resources
Groundwater
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a large number of aquifers, in particular in dry
regions are mined (pumping rate > recharge rate) (Fig)
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example: depletion of the Ogallala aquifer,
in some areas water level is dropping by 1m/y, recharge only mm's/y (Fig)
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results: groundwater mining, land subsidence (Fig)(Fig),
sea water intrusion (Fig)
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example: Houston TX (Fig)(Fig)
Water quality
Sources of pollution
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pollution is defined as exceedence of natural concentrations
in inacceptable levels
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human health is usually used as a measure
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pollution can be found in all components of the hydrologic
cycle
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point: sewage treatment plants, factories, accidents,
gas stations, ....
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nonpoint: agriculture, urban runoff, septic systems
Major surface sources of pollution
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surface sources dominate pollution
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organic pollution, nitrate, phosphate
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traditionally dominated by human sewage, but agricultural
manure, slurry, and silage liquor have become major sources in 1980s and
90s, 'zero grazing policy'
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organic polution can adversely affet color, smell,
and turbidity (from suspended matter), pathogenic bacteria, and viruses
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loss of oxygen: biological oxygen demand (BOD), measured
by incubating a water sample in the dark for 5 days
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crude sewage has a BOD of 600 mg/l O2/5days,
unpoluted water only 5mg/l, silage liquor from fermented fodder grass can
have a BOD 3000 times higher than sewage!
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three key parameters for measuring organic pollution:
BOD, dissolved O2 (DO, a measure of actual water status at the
time of sampling), and ammonia (NH3 or NH4+)
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excessive levels of nitrogen and phosphorus produced
by bacterial decomposition of organic waste can lead to eutrophication
(indicator: algae growth) -> oxygen loss -> anaerobic conditions
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high levels of nitrate in drinking water => 'blue
baby syndrom', cancer by formation of nitrosamones in the gut
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WHO limit: 10ml/l of nitrate as N2
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fecal coliform bacteria, concentrations > 100 000
per 100ml found in 4% of the rivers in the developed world!
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fecal contamination (human + aninmal sources) can
carry E coli, Rotavirus, the protozoan Cryptosporidium, the bacterium salmonella,
parasitic worms; some of these microbiological problems cannot be treated
with chlorine or ozone
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In 1993, this pernicious parasite grabbed the
nation's attention. Its presence in the Milwaukee public water supply gave
more than 400,000 people acute and often prolonged diarrhea or other gastrointestinal
symptoms. By the time the outbreak ended, 100 people had died. It was the
largest episode of waterborne disease in the United States in the 70 years
since health officials began tracking such outbreaks. (Overview
of similar cases)
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major other components of pollution are organic compounds
such as TCE and MTBE (solvents, gasoline additives)
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suspended solids and sediment yields
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suspended sediments often seen as pollutants, affect light transmission,
clog intakes, can be natural and anthropogenic
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high loads in regions with high water surplus, highly erodible soils/sediments
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associated problems: filling of reservoirs with sediments, reduction of
fertilization, sinking deltas, adsorption of pollutants
contaminats stored in sediments (Fig J 8.16),
PCBs in the Hudson are mostly coming out of the sediments today
Possible solutions
Conservation!!
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agriculture is the biggest user of water in the US,
any solution needs to start with this sector
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improvement of irrigation efficiency
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irrigation techniques
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basin
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furrow (Fig)
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sprinkler, in particular: central pivot irrigation (Fig)
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drip (Fig)
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discussion of advantages and disadvantages of the individual techniques
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erosion control
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ET loss
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labor required for irrigation
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robustness regarding water quality
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efficiency (water/plant)
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other labor costs (weed control, distribution of fertilizers)
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initial cost
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the choice of the irrigation method also depends on the kind of crops that
have to be irrigated
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drip irrigation is primarily a technique for regions with very low water
supply or bad water quality
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sensible selection of crops
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pollution control in agriculture
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pricing
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market competition will reduce use
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